Mental Health and Aging with Exercise
Linas JuozenasShare
Intelligence Unleashed · Mental health & aging
Aging, movement
and meaningful connection.
A walk with a friend, the strength to tend a garden, a conversation that makes room for your ideas: movement and connection can support a life that feels more manageable and more your own. Their value is real, even while research continues to clarify their effects on memory and long-term brain health.
Evidence reviewed September 2026 · General education · Examples and sample routines are illustrative
Mental well-being is part of growing older
Growing older does not prescribe one emotional life, one level of fitness or one pattern of thinking.
Some aspects of cognition, such as the speed of retrieving a word, can change with age. Knowledge and familiar skills may remain strong. Occasional forgetfulness is different from a persistent decline that interferes with daily activities. Dementia is not an inevitable or normal consequence of aging.1
Mental health also includes how a person feels, relates to others and experiences everyday life. Depression is a health condition, not a normal requirement of older age. Its symptoms can include a loss of interest, low energy and difficulties with concentration, alongside or sometimes more noticeably than sadness.2
Changes deserve context
Retirement, bereavement, pain, caring responsibilities, financial pressure and changes in mobility can alter daily routines. A difficult period is not evidence that someone has failed to age well.
Strengths deserve attention
Experience, humor, practical knowledge, curiosity and relationships remain meaningful. An older person should be asked what matters to them, rather than treated only as a collection of risks.
Movement and social connection are two useful parts of this picture. They do not replace adequate housing, health care, hearing and vision support, financial security or a safe environment. Nor are they a promise that illness will never occur.
A better aim than “staying young”
Support the things that make life workable and worthwhile: participating in decisions, doing valued activities, sustaining relationships and receiving help when it is needed. These goals remain valid at every level of physical or cognitive ability.3
What exercise studies actually show
Physical activity has established health benefits. Its effects on cognition are more variable: studies differ in the people recruited, the activities tested, comparison groups, duration and outcomes. Better performance on a memory test is also a different finding from fewer diagnoses of dementia years later.4
Average cognitive benefits are possible
A systematic review of exercise interventions in adults over 50 found improvements in cognitive performance on average. Results varied by intervention and study characteristics. This supports including exercise in a healthy routine, but cannot promise that one activity will improve every cognitive skill for every person.5
2014–2015
Physical benefits can exceed cognitive effects
In older adults at risk of mobility disability, a structured activity program helped preserve the ability to walk a specified distance. The trial's cognitive analysis did not find better overall cognitive outcomes than health education after two years. A valuable mobility benefit did not require a corresponding improvement on the cognitive tests.6, 7
2025
More intense did not mean more effective
Among adults with mild cognitive impairment affecting memory, aerobic training did not outperform a stretching, balance and range-of-motion program on the main cognitive outcome over 12 months. Both groups received substantial support. Without a randomized usual-care group, their relative stability does not prove that either program prevented decline.8
2025
A supported combination showed a small advantage
Over two years, a structured program combining exercise, diet, cognitive and social activity, and health monitoring produced a modestly greater improvement in cognitive-test performance than a self-guided program. The trial cannot identify exercise alone as the cause, and it did not establish that participants would avoid dementia.9
The practical conclusion is neither to dismiss movement nor to sell it as a cure. Exercise can be worthwhile for strength, mobility, mood and general health while its cognitive effects remain modest or uncertain in a particular setting.
Risk reduction is not a guarantee
The 2024 Lancet Commission describes several potentially modifiable dementia risk factors across the lifespan. It also emphasizes that population-level risk reduction cannot guarantee an individual will avoid dementia. Developing illness is not proof that someone exercised too little or failed to maintain enough friendships.10
How movement may support the mind
There are several plausible routes between activity and cognition. Movement can support cardiovascular and metabolic health, influence sleep and emotional well-being, and create opportunities to learn or interact. A mechanism being plausible does not mean that every link in a proposed chain has been demonstrated in an individual person.4
Brain adaptation is more complex than “growing neurons”
A well-known randomized study found increased hippocampal volume after a year of aerobic exercise in older adults. MRI measures changes in tissue-level structure; it does not count newly born neurons. Both groups improved on the memory task, and the between-group memory difference was not significant. The result cannot establish that exercise made participants' brains younger or reliably improved memory more than the comparison program.11
Research also examines molecules such as brain-derived neurotrophic factor, or BDNF, that participate in neural plasticity. A blood measurement, a brain scan and a change in everyday memory answer different questions. None should be treated as a simple meter of how many neurons a workout has produced.11
A practical pathway
Movement can make participation easier
If a person can reach the bus stop or move around a venue more comfortably, attending a class may become more feasible. Mobility support can expand opportunities without needing to produce a measurable change in intelligence.
An experiential pathway
An activity supplies something to do
A familiar gardening task or a short walk can add structure and a change of scene. Its meaning may come from enjoyment, competence or contact with another person, as well as physical effort.
These examples illustrate possible everyday benefits. They should not be turned into a claim that inactivity causes every cognitive difficulty, or that someone unable to exercise vigorously has no way to support their mental life.
Different kinds of movement do different jobs
A balanced routine usually includes aerobic activity, strengthening and balance work. These categories overlap, but a pleasant walk does not automatically supply every strength or balance challenge a person needs.12
| Type | Possible examples | A useful consideration |
|---|---|---|
| Aerobic | Walking, wheeling, cycling, swimming or rhythmic movement. | The effort should be judged relative to the person's capacity. |
| Strength | Appropriate resistance bands, weights, machines or adapted bodyweight movements. | Choose a manageable challenge and suitable technique. |
| Balance & function | Supported balance practice and exercises relevant to standing, turning or stepping. | Support and supervision may be needed when falls are a concern. |
| Combined activity | Adapted dance, tai chi, gardening or a supervised circuit. | Check what the session actually includes; the activity's name is not a complete exercise prescription. |
Balance has evidence of its own
A Cochrane review found that exercise programs reduced falls in older people living in the community, with strong evidence for balance and functional exercise. It did not establish that walking alone has the same effect. Fall prevention therefore deserves specific attention rather than being assumed to follow from any activity.13
Strength work can support tasks such as rising from a chair or handling everyday objects. Someone with pain, limited standing tolerance or a mobility impairment may need a different starting position or equipment. An adaptation should fit the person rather than merely make an exercise look easier.14
There is no universal best “brain exercise”
Dance may appeal because of music and companionship. Swimming may suit someone who enjoys water. A home routine may fit another person's privacy or transport needs. The best choice is one that serves useful goals and remains feasible, enjoyable and appropriately challenging.
Use guidelines as a direction
World Health Organization guidance for adults aged 65 and over combines weekly aerobic activity with strengthening and work on balance and function. These are general health recommendations, not a proven dose for preventing dementia.15
Aerobic activity
150–300 minutes
Moderate-intensity activity across the week, or 75–150 minutes of vigorous activity, or an equivalent combination.
Strength
At least 2 days
Muscle-strengthening activities at moderate or greater intensity involving all major muscle groups, adjusted to ability and health.
Balance & function
At least 3 days
Varied multicomponent activity emphasizing functional balance and strength at moderate or greater intensity, to support function and prevent falls.
A starting principle
Some is worthwhile
Begin with amounts you can manage and increase gradually. When the full recommendations are not possible, work within your abilities and circumstances.
Moderate effort is relative
The talk test is a rough guide: during moderate aerobic activity, a person can usually talk but not comfortably sing. This is not a requirement to walk at someone else's pace. The same speed may feel easy for one person and demanding for another.16
A beginner might start with a few comfortable minutes and discover how they feel afterward. Short bouts can contribute to activity; there is no need to complete a long uninterrupted session before it counts. Progress can mean a little more time, better technique or improved confidence—not necessarily greater intensity.
Match advice to the situation
Age alone does not require a medical clearance appointment before ordinary light or moderate activity. If you have an unstable condition or are recovering from a procedure, follow your treating clinician's activity advice before starting or increasing exercise. Significant pain, balance difficulties or a history of falls can be reasons to seek help tailoring the plan. WHO guidance supports starting small and adapting activity to the person.17
New chest pain, fainting or severe unexpected breathlessness during activity should not be treated as a training challenge. Stop and seek urgent medical assessment.18 For less urgent difficulties, adjusting the plan with a qualified professional can help identify a workable route forward.
Mood improves through more than willpower
Exercise trials in older adults suggest that physical activity can reduce depressive symptoms on average. Different activities have shown benefits, but the studies vary in quality, participants and comparison conditions. An average benefit is not a promise that a particular routine will resolve an individual's depression.19
Movement can also create occasions for enjoyment, routine and a sense of capability. Someone might value the feeling of tending a plant, learning a step or reaching a familiar meeting place. These experiences matter even when they do not produce an immediate change in a questionnaire score.
Example · A smaller invitation
From “You should exercise” to a manageable option
A person who has lost interest in outings may find a demanding class overwhelming. A companion could offer a short visit to a nearby garden, with somewhere to sit and no obligation to stay. The invitation creates a possibility while preserving the person's choice.
Low motivation can itself be part of depression. Pain, fatigue, grief and practical obstacles can also make activity difficult. Responding with blame or repeated pressure may miss the underlying problem.
Persistent loss of interest, low mood, marked changes in sleep or appetite, or difficulties managing daily life deserve appropriate assessment. Movement and companionship can support care, but they should not become conditions a person must satisfy before receiving it.2
Let pleasure remain a valid reason
Not every walk needs a distance target, and not every conversation needs to train memory. A pleasant afternoon can be worthwhile because the person enjoyed it.
Connection is about fit, not crowd size
Social isolation concerns an objective shortage of relationships or contact. Loneliness is the distressing experience of a gap between the connection someone wants and what they feel they have. The two can overlap, but they are not identical.20
Living alone can feel connected
A person may enjoy their own home, speak regularly with a few trusted people and feel satisfied with that rhythm. Solitude by choice is not automatically loneliness.21
A busy room can still feel lonely
Someone may attend several activities yet feel unheard, excluded or unable to speak openly. Attendance alone does not reveal the quality of the experience.
Meaningful connection may involve friendship, family, neighbors, shared interests, a faith community or people met online. Its form should reflect the person's preferences. A small circle and an active social calendar can both be satisfying when they fit the individual.
Ask what kind of company is wanted
“Would you prefer a visit, a phone call or some quiet time?” is often more useful than deciding that someone needs more events. A person may want companionship while doing a task, a serious conversation, a familiar voice or simply someone who remembers to follow up.
Relationships should also permit boundaries. A demanding or disrespectful group is not beneficial merely because it creates contact. Older adults retain the right to decline an activity, choose companions and leave interactions that make them uncomfortable.
Being included is different from being managed
Ask for the person's ideas, invite them into decisions and recognize what they can offer. Connection becomes more meaningful when someone is a participant with preferences, rather than the object of a schedule arranged around them.
What social research can—and cannot—tell us
Large observational studies link loneliness and social isolation with poorer health and, in some research, a higher incidence of dementia.20 A meta-analysis involving more than 600,000 participants found an association between loneliness and later dementia. Association does not establish that loneliness alone caused the outcome.22
Health, mobility, hearing, bereavement and financial circumstances can affect both connection and cognition. Early cognitive changes can also make social participation harder, creating a problem of reverse causation. Statistical adjustments help researchers examine these issues, but do not turn an observational study into a randomized intervention.
Intervention evidence
Some approaches help, with modest average effects
A review of interventions for community-living older adults found that some group-based approaches and internet training reduced loneliness. Evidence varied in certainty and results differed by intervention type. There is no single activity that works for everyone.23
Conversation trial
A promising, specific experiment
A trial of structured video conversations in socially isolated older adults reported benefits on some cognitive measures. A key global-cognition finding came from a small subgroup with mild cognitive impairment; pandemic disruption reduced the available primary-outcome sample. The study does not establish that ordinary video calls prevent dementia.24
Meaningful possibilities, uncertain health effects
Programs bringing older and younger people together can offer shared activities and relationships. A systematic review of randomized studies found substantial uncertainty about their effects on older participants' mental health and well-being. A good experience should not be advertised as a proven cognitive treatment.25
A phone call can be a useful option
In a four-week pandemic-era trial among meal-service clients, most aged 65 or older, an empathy-focused calling program improved some loneliness and mood measures compared with no calls. The short follow-up and specific setting limit conclusions about lasting benefits. The study nevertheless shows why accessible human contact deserves attention alongside more elaborate programs.26
Connection has value even when a study cannot show a change in cognitive decline. Feeling heard, having practical support and enjoying another person's company are worthwhile outcomes in their own right.
A useful question for any program
Does it address what this person actually misses: companionship, belonging, transport, communication support or an opportunity to contribute? A program can attract attendance while leaving the original need unmet.
Bring movement and connection together when it helps
A shared activity can make it easier to arrange both movement and contact. It may also give a conversation a natural focus. This is a practical possibility, not evidence that the combination multiplies brain benefits or must replace solitary activity.
A familiar walking route
Company with an easy stopping point
Two friends choose a short loop with benches. They agree on a pace that suits both and leave room to turn back. If talking makes the walk too demanding, they can pause for conversation.
A shared garden
Several ways to participate
One person works at a raised bed, another labels seedlings while seated, and another shares knowledge about plants. Participation does not require equal physical output.
Music and movement
Adapt the session
A group offers seated and standing options, clear demonstrations and room for rests. Someone can enjoy the music without being pressured to attempt unfamiliar steps.
Home-based contact
Connection can follow activity
A person completes an appropriate home routine, then calls a friend. Both activities can fit the day without requiring multitasking or simultaneous participation.
Shared activity should not create a new barrier
A group that moves too quickly, speaks over someone or treats rests as failure may discourage participation. A quieter partner, a shorter visit or a different setting may fit better. There is no obligation to socialize while exercising if that feels distracting or tiring.
Likewise, companionship should remain available when a person cannot exercise. A visit should not be cancelled because they are having a painful day. Movement and connection can support one another without making either a condition of the other.
One manageable invitation
“Would you like to come outside with me for a few minutes?” leaves more room for choice than a plan that assumes the person must join a class, become fitter and make friends all at once.
Make participation possible
Advice to “be active and stay social” can sound simple while ignoring the work needed to make either possible. Access is a shared responsibility. A person should not have to overcome every environmental barrier through determination.
| Barrier | Possible adjustment | Who can help make it happen? |
|---|---|---|
| Transport or distance | A nearby meeting, a ride arrangement, a phone option or a home visit. | Organizers, neighbors and services, where available. |
| Pain or limited mobility | Accessible routes, appropriate seating, shorter sessions and adapted activity. | The participant, venue and a relevant professional when needed. |
| Hearing or vision difficulty | Less background noise, clear sightlines, readable information and suitable communication support. | Everyone involved in the interaction. |
| Cost | Transparent fees, free alternatives or support with equipment and travel. | Program providers and community organizations. |
| Unfamiliar technology | A simple setup, a practice call and a non-digital alternative. | A patient helper who follows the person's preferences. |
| Fear of not fitting in | A named welcome person, clear information and permission to observe first. | Group leaders and other participants. |
Communication access can change the experience
Hearing or vision difficulties may make instructions, conversation and unfamiliar spaces harder to navigate. Clear communication and accessible materials are practical ways to include people. Someone who appears withdrawn may be struggling to hear, follow the discussion or read what is being shown.27
Hearing care can support communication without needing a promise about dementia prevention. The ACHIEVE trial did not find an overall reduction in three-year cognitive decline from its hearing intervention, although a prespecified analysis suggested benefit in the higher-risk study population.28
Include people already living with cognitive difficulties
Familiar routines, patient explanations, clear meeting points and a trusted companion may help participation. Ask the person what they want, offer manageable choices and adapt the activity. Difficulty remembering details does not erase preferences, enjoyment or the right to be treated respectfully.
Supporters have needs too. A workable plan should consider their time, health and ability to continue helping. Community participation should not depend on one relative being permanently available.
Build a flexible weekly rhythm
The following is a planning example, not a personal prescription or a timetable for cognitive improvement. It illustrates how someone already able to tolerate the activity might spread movement across a week. A beginner can use a much smaller starting point.
| Day | Movement | Optional connection |
|---|---|---|
| Monday | 30 minutes of moderate aerobic activity, divided if helpful; suitable strength and balance work. | A brief conversation with a friend. |
| Tuesday | 30 minutes of moderate aerobic activity. | A shared interest, class or phone call. |
| Wednesday | A lighter day; appropriate balance practice with functional strengthening. | Company, quiet time or both. |
| Thursday | 30 minutes of moderate aerobic activity; suitable strength and balance work. | An activity partner, if wanted. |
| Friday | 30 minutes of moderate aerobic activity. | A familiar meeting or a home visit. |
| Saturday | 30 minutes of moderate aerobic activity through an enjoyable option. | A shared outing or task. |
| Sunday | A lighter day with comfortable everyday movement as appropriate. | Keep the day flexible. |
The aerobic entries total 150 minutes, with two main strength days and three occasions for balance and functional work. Qualifying strength and multicomponent sessions should offer a moderate-or-greater challenge relative to ability. Their duration, content and support need to fit the person; marking a box alone does not establish that a session supplied the relevant training.12, 15
A smaller beginning can be complete in itself
For someone rebuilding a routine, an initial plan might be a few comfortable minutes of suitable movement on several days, plus one wanted conversation. The first task is to find out what is tolerable and realistic. It does not have to resemble the table immediately.
Allow recovery and changing circumstances. Pain, illness, poor sleep, appointments or caring responsibilities can alter a week. Adjusting a plan is part of maintaining it; missed sessions do not require punishment or a demanding attempt to catch up.
Plan an alternative, not a test of commitment
If rain prevents an outing, perhaps an indoor option fits. If activity is not manageable, a phone call may still be welcome. If conversation feels tiring, the person can choose a quieter day.
Notice progress that matters in daily life
A useful record can be brief and optional. Instead of testing memory every day, consider whether the routine is helping with the things the person values.
- Notice functionIs a familiar task becoming easier, more comfortable or more manageable? Consider the person's own goal rather than a comparison with someone else.
- Notice the experienceWas the activity enjoyable, neutral or exhausting? Did the social contact feel welcome? These answers can guide the next choice.
- Notice recoveryHow did the person feel later that day and the next? Persistent worsening of pain, fatigue or other symptoms deserves adjustment and, when appropriate, advice.
- Review the fitKeep what is useful. Change the timing, setting, activity or company if it creates unnecessary difficulty.
Memory concerns need their own attention
Repeated difficulty managing familiar tasks, getting lost in known places or new and worsening memory concerns should not simply be attributed to age. Assessment can help distinguish possible causes and support needs.1 Sudden confusion is different again and requires urgent medical attention.29
A person can remain active and sociable while developing a health problem. Equally, someone who moves slowly or enjoys little company may have no cognitive disorder. Activity levels and social style are not diagnostic tests.
Retain the person's voice
Ask what they have noticed and what would help. Family observations may be useful, but the conversation should include the older adult directly whenever possible. Support should increase their ability to participate in life and decisions.
Common questions
Can exercise prevent dementia?
Physical activity is part of general health and dementia risk-reduction guidance, but it cannot guarantee prevention. Trials have mixed cognitive results, and many measure test performance rather than dementia diagnoses. Health care, accessible environments and other risk factors matter too.
Is vigorous exercise necessary for the brain?
No universal cognitive advantage has been established for vigorous exercise. Moderate activity is included in standard health recommendations, and an appropriate starting point may be lighter. The EXERT trial did not find aerobic training superior to its lower-intensity comparison program on the main cognitive outcome.
What if I cannot walk or stand for long?
Look for activity suited to your actual abilities and condition. Seated, supported, water-based or otherwise adapted options may be possible, with individualized advice where needed. Social participation can also be adapted and does not depend on completing an exercise routine.
Do online conversations count as connection?
They can be meaningful when they provide wanted, accessible contact. A familiar phone call may fit better than video for some people. Digital contact is an option, not a requirement or a proven substitute for every kind of in-person support.
Do I need to join a group if I enjoy solitude?
No. Chosen solitude is different from unwanted loneliness. Consider whether you have the relationships and practical support you want. A small circle can be satisfying, and preferences deserve respect.
How quickly should memory or mood improve?
There is no dependable deadline. Research interventions vary in duration, and individual responses differ. Look for useful changes in daily life while seeking appropriate assessment for persistent symptoms. A lack of noticeable improvement is not a reason for blame.
Keep the goal human
Movement can support the body that carries us through daily life. Connection can make that life feel shared and meaningful. The strongest approach makes room for both, at a pace and in a form the person can actually use—with care continuing through every change in ability.
This article provides general education and illustrative planning ideas, not an individual diagnosis or exercise prescription. Health conditions, symptoms and support needs may require personalized advice.
Evidence & context
Sources and further reading
These sources include trials, research syntheses and public-health guidance. Observational associations, changes in test performance, physical function and prevention of disease are different outcomes. Study notes highlight relevant limits. External links open in a new tab.
- National Institute on Aging. Memory Problems, Forgetfulness, and Aging. Official guidance (2023). Normal changes and reasons for assessment.
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Depression and Aging. Official guidance (2024). Depression is not normal aging.
- World Health Organization. Healthy ageing and functional ability. Person-centered framework (2020). Abilities, environments and valued activities.
- World Health Organization. Physical activity. Fact sheet (2024). Physical and mental health benefits.
- Northey JM et al. Exercise interventions for cognitive function in adults older than 50: a systematic review with meta-analysis. British Journal of Sports Medicine (2018). Heterogeneous trials; average cognitive effects.
- Pahor M et al. Effect of structured physical activity on prevention of major mobility disability in older adults: the LIFE study randomized clinical trial. JAMA (2014). Walking-mobility outcome in an at-risk population.
- Sink KM et al. Effect of a 24-Month Physical Activity Intervention vs Health Education on Cognitive Outcomes in Sedentary Older Adults: The LIFE Randomized Trial. JAMA (2015). No overall cognitive advantage over the active comparison.
- Baker LD et al. Effects of exercise on cognition and Alzheimer’s biomarkers in a randomized controlled trial of adults with mild cognitive impairment: The EXERT study. Alzheimer’s & Dementia (2025). No main cognitive difference; both groups received support.
- Baker LD et al. Structured vs Self-Guided Multidomain Lifestyle Interventions for Global Cognitive Function: The US POINTER Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA (2025). Small additional benefit from a structured multidomain program.
- Livingston G et al. Dementia prevention, intervention, and care: 2024 report of the Lancet standing Commission. The Lancet (2024). Population risk reduction is not an individual guarantee.
- Erickson KI et al. Exercise training increases size of hippocampus and improves memory. PNAS (2011). MRI volume changed; no significant between-group memory advantage.
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Older Adult Activity: An Overview. Official recommendations (2025). Aerobic, strength and balance activity.
- Sherrington C et al. Exercise for preventing falls in older people living in the community. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (2019). Balance and functional exercise evidence.
- National Institute on Aging. Exercising With Chronic Conditions. Official guidance (2025). Adapt activity to health and functional needs.
- World Health Organization. WHO Guidelines on Physical Activity and Sedentary Behaviour. WHO (2020). Weekly recommendations, including multicomponent balance and strength.
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. How to Measure Physical Activity Intensity. Official guidance (2024). Relative intensity and the talk test.
- World Health Organization. WHO Guidelines on Physical Activity and Sedentary Behaviour: Executive Summary. WHO (2020). Starting gradually, adaptations and proportionate medical-clearance guidance.
- National Institute on Aging. What Is a Heart Attack? Official guidance (2024). Recognizing symptoms requiring urgent attention.
- Schuch FB et al. Exercise for depression in older adults: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials adjusting for publication bias. Brazilian Journal of Psychiatry (2016). Small, heterogeneous older-adult trial synthesis.
- World Health Organization. Social connection. Official definitions and evidence overview (2025). Structure, function and quality of connection.
- National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. Risk and Protective Factors for Social Isolation and Loneliness. Social Isolation and Loneliness in Older Adults (2020), Chapter 4. Living alone and chosen solitude.
- Luchetti M et al. A meta-analysis of loneliness and risk of dementia using longitudinal data from >600,000 individuals. Nature Mental Health (2024). Observational association; reverse causation remains relevant.
- Shekelle PG et al. Interventions to Reduce Loneliness in Community-Living Older Adults: a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Journal of General Internal Medicine (2024). Modest effects and variable evidence certainty.
- Dodge HH et al. Internet-Based Conversational Engagement Randomized Controlled Clinical Trial (I-CONECT) Among Socially Isolated Adults 75+ Years Old With Normal Cognition or Mild Cognitive Impairment: Topline Results. The Gerontologist (2024). Small primary-analysis subgroup; pandemic-related limitations.
- Whear R et al. What is the effect of intergenerational activities on the wellbeing and mental health of older people? A systematic review. Campbell Systematic Reviews (2023). Uncertain effects across small randomized studies.
- Kahlon MK et al. Effect of Layperson-Delivered, Empathy-Focused Program of Telephone Calls on Loneliness, Depression, and Anxiety Among Adults During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Psychiatry (2021). Four-week trial; most participants were older adults.
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Challenges Affecting Health Literacy of Older Adults. Official guidance (2024). Hearing, vision and accessible communication.
- Lin FR et al. Hearing intervention versus health education control to reduce cognitive decline in older adults with hearing loss in the USA (ACHIEVE): a multicentre, randomised controlled trial. The Lancet (2023). Overall null cognitive result; prespecified subgroup finding.
- National Health Service. Sudden confusion (delirium). Official guidance. Sudden confusion requires urgent medical assessment.